Perspective
Antimicrobial Drug Resistance, Regulation, and Research
Innovative regulatory and legislative measures to stimulate and facilitate the development of new antimicrobial drugs are needed. We discuss research approaches that can aid regulatory decision making on the treatment of resistant infections and minimization of resistance selection. We also outline current and future measures that regulatory agencies may employ to help control resistance and promote drug development. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic research models offer promising approaches to define the determinants of resistance selection and drug doses that optimize efficacy and reduce resistance selection. Internationally, variations exist in how regulators use drug scheduling, subsidy restrictions, central directives, educational guidelines, amendments to prescribing information, and indication review. Recent consultations and collaborations between regulators, academics, and industry are welcome. Efforts to coordinate regulatory measures would benefit from greater levels of international dialogue.
EID | Metlay JP, Powers JH, Dudley MN, Christiansen K, Finch RG. Antimicrobial Drug Resistance, Regulation, and Research. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):183-190. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050078 |
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AMA | Metlay JP, Powers JH, Dudley MN, et al. Antimicrobial Drug Resistance, Regulation, and Research. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):183-190. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050078. |
APA | Metlay, J. P., Powers, J. H., Dudley, M. N., Christiansen, K., & Finch, R. G. (2006). Antimicrobial Drug Resistance, Regulation, and Research. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 183-190. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050078. |
HIV Drug-resistant Strains as Epidemiologic Sentinels
Observed declines in drug resistance to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors among persons recently infected with HIV-1 in monitored subpopulations can be interpreted as a positive sign and lead public health officials to decrease efforts towards HIV prevention. By means of a mathematical model, we identified 3 processes that can account for the observed decline: increase in high-risk behavior, decrease in proportion of acutely infected persons whose conditions are treated, and change in treatment efficacy. These processes, singly or in combination, can lead to increases or decreases in disease and drug-resistance prevalence in the general population. We discuss the most appropriate public health response under each scenario and emphasize how further data collection and analyses are required to more reliably evaluate the observed time trends and the relative importance of forces shaping the epidemic. Our study highlights how drug resistance markers can be used as epidemiologic sentinels to devise public health solutions.
EID | Sánchez MS, Grant RM, Porco TC, Getz WM. HIV Drug-resistant Strains as Epidemiologic Sentinels. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):191-197. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050321 |
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AMA | Sánchez MS, Grant RM, Porco TC, et al. HIV Drug-resistant Strains as Epidemiologic Sentinels. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):191-197. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050321. |
APA | Sánchez, M. S., Grant, R. M., Porco, T. C., & Getz, W. M. (2006). HIV Drug-resistant Strains as Epidemiologic Sentinels. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 191-197. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050321. |
Detecting Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Mutants
Hepatitis B viral mutants can emerge in patients as a result of selection pressure from either immune response or treatment options. Mutations that occur within the immunodominant epitopes of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) allow mutant virus to propagate in the presence of a neutralizing immune response, while wild-type virus is reduced to undetectable levels. HBsAg mutants present as false-negative results in some immunoassays. An understanding of immunoassay reactivity with HBsAg mutants is key to establishing an appropriate testing algorithm for hepatitis B virus detection programs.
EID | Coleman PF. Detecting Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Mutants. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):198-203. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050038 |
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AMA | Coleman PF. Detecting Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Mutants. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):198-203. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050038. |
APA | Coleman, P. F. (2006). Detecting Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Mutants. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 198-203. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050038. |
Detecting Emerging Diseases in Farm Animals through Clinical Observations
Predicting emerging diseases is among the most difficult challenges facing researchers and health managers. We present available approaches and tools to detect emerging diseases in animals based on clinical observations of farm animals by veterinarians. Three information systems are described and discussed: Veterinary Practitioner Aided Disease Surveillance in New Zealand, the Rapid Syndrome Validation Project—Animal in the United States, and "émergences" in France. These systems are based on syndromic surveillance with the notification of every case or of specific clinical syndromes or on the notification of atypical clinical cases. Data are entered by field veterinarians into forms available through Internet-accessible devices. Beyond challenges of implementing new information systems, minimizing economic and health effects from emerging diseases in animals requires strong synergies across a group of field partners, in research, and in international animal and public health customs and practices.
EID | Vourc'h G, Bridges VE, Gibbens J, De Groot BD, McIntyre L, Poland R, et al. Detecting Emerging Diseases in Farm Animals through Clinical Observations. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):204-210. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050498 |
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AMA | Vourc'h G, Bridges VE, Gibbens J, et al. Detecting Emerging Diseases in Farm Animals through Clinical Observations. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):204-210. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050498. |
APA | Vourc'h, G., Bridges, V. E., Gibbens, J., De Groot, B. D., McIntyre, L., Poland, R....Barnouin, J. (2006). Detecting Emerging Diseases in Farm Animals through Clinical Observations. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 204-210. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050498. |
Synopses
Systematic Review of Antimicrobial Drug Prescribing in Hospitals
Prudent prescribing of antimicrobial drugs to hospital inpatients may reduce incidences of antimicrobial drug resistance and healthcare-associated infection. We reviewed the literature from January 1980 to November 2003 to identify rigorous evaluations of interventions to improve hospital prescribing of antimicrobial drugs. We identified 66 studies with interpretable data, of which 16 reported 20 microbiologic outcomes: gram-negative resistant bacteria, 10 studies; Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea, 5 studies; vancomycin-resistant enterococci, 3 studies; and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, 2 studies. Four studies provided strong evidence that the intervention changed microbial outcomes with low risk for alternative explanations, 8 studies provided less convincing evidence, and 4 studies provided no evidence. The strongest and most consistent evidence was for C. difficile–associated diahrrea, but we were able to analyze only the immediate impact of interventions because of nonstandardized durations of follow-up. The ability to compare results of studies could be substantially improved by standardizing methods and reporting.
EID | Davey P, Brown E, Fenelon L, Finch R, Gould I, Holmes A, et al. Systematic Review of Antimicrobial Drug Prescribing in Hospitals. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):211-216. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050145 |
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AMA | Davey P, Brown E, Fenelon L, et al. Systematic Review of Antimicrobial Drug Prescribing in Hospitals. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):211-216. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050145. |
APA | Davey, P., Brown, E., Fenelon, L., Finch, R., Gould, I., Holmes, A....Wilcox, M. (2006). Systematic Review of Antimicrobial Drug Prescribing in Hospitals. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 211-216. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050145. |
Bartonella quintana Characteristics and Clinical Management
Bartonella quintana, a pathogen that is restricted to human hosts and louse vectors, was first characterized as the agent of trench fever. The disease was described in 1915 on the basis of natural and experimental infections in soldiers. It is now recognized as a reemerging pathogen among homeless populations in cities in the United States and Europe and is responsible for a wide spectrum of conditions, including chronic bacteremia, endocarditis, and bacillary angiomatosis. Diagnosis is based on serologic analysis, culture, and molecular biology. Recent characterization of its genome allowed the development of modern diagnosis and typing methods. Guidelines for the treatment of B. quintana infections are presented.
EID | Foucault C, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Bartonella quintana Characteristics and Clinical Management. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):217-223. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050874 |
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AMA | Foucault C, Brouqui P, Raoult D. Bartonella quintana Characteristics and Clinical Management. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):217-223. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050874. |
APA | Foucault, C., Brouqui, P., & Raoult, D. (2006). Bartonella quintana Characteristics and Clinical Management. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 217-223. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050874. |
Rickettsia africae in the West Indies
Rickettsia africae is the agent of African tick-bite fever, a mild but common disease of local persons and tourists in Africa. The major vector of this spotted fever group rickettsia is most likely Amblyomma variegatum, the tropical bont tick, which has become widely distributed through the West Indies in the last 30 years. This report reviews all available information on R. africae in the West Indies.
EID | Kelly PJ. Rickettsia africae in the West Indies. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):224-226. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050903 |
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AMA | Kelly PJ. Rickettsia africae in the West Indies. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):224-226. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050903. |
APA | Kelly, P. J. (2006). Rickettsia africae in the West Indies. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 224-226. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050903. |
Research
Free-grazing Ducks and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza, Thailand
Thailand has recently had 3 epidemic waves of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI); virus was again detected in July 2005. Risk factors need to be identified to better understand disease ecology and assist HPAI surveillance and detection. This study analyzed the spatial distribution of HPAI outbreaks in relation to poultry, land use, and other anthropogenic variables from the start of the second epidemic wave (July 2004–May 2005). Results demonstrate a strong association between H5N1 virus in Thailand and abundance of free-grazing ducks and, to a lesser extent, native chickens, cocks, wetlands, and humans. Wetlands used for double-crop rice production, where free-grazing duck feed year round in rice paddies, appear to be a critical factor in HPAI persistence and spread. This finding could be important for other duck-producing regions in eastern and southeastern Asian countries affected by HPAI.
EID | Gilbert M, Chaitaweesub P, Parakamawongsa T, Premashthira S, Tiensin T, Kalpravidh W, et al. Free-grazing Ducks and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):227-234. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050640 |
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AMA | Gilbert M, Chaitaweesub P, Parakamawongsa T, et al. Free-grazing Ducks and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza, Thailand. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):227-234. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050640. |
APA | Gilbert, M., Chaitaweesub, P., Parakamawongsa, T., Premashthira, S., Tiensin, T., Kalpravidh, W....Slingenbergh, J. (2006). Free-grazing Ducks and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza, Thailand. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 227-234. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050640. |
Nipah Virus-associated Encephalitis Outbreak, Siliguri, India
During January and February 2001, an outbreak of febrile illness associated with altered sensorium was observed in Siliguri, West Bengal, India. Laboratory investigations at the time of the outbreak did not identify an infectious agent. Because Siliguri is in close proximity to Bangladesh, where outbreaks of Nipah virus (NiV) infection were recently described, clinical material obtained during the Siliguri outbreak was retrospectively analyzed for evidence of NiV infection. NiV-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies were detected in 9 of 18 patients. Reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays detected RNA from NiV in urine samples from 5 patients. Sequence analysis confirmed that the PCR products were derived from NiV RNA and suggested that the NiV from Siliguri was more closely related to NiV isolates from Bangladesh than to NiV isolates from Malaysia. NiV infection has not been previously detected in India.
EID | Chadha M, Comer JA, Lowe L, Rota PA, Rollin PE, Bellini WJ, et al. Nipah Virus-associated Encephalitis Outbreak, Siliguri, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):235-240. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051247 |
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AMA | Chadha M, Comer JA, Lowe L, et al. Nipah Virus-associated Encephalitis Outbreak, Siliguri, India. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):235-240. doi:10.3201/eid1202.051247. |
APA | Chadha, M., Comer, J. A., Lowe, L., Rota, P. A., Rollin, P. E., Bellini, W. J....Mishra, A. C. (2006). Nipah Virus-associated Encephalitis Outbreak, Siliguri, India. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 235-240. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051247. |
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clones, Western Australia
Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was first reported in Western Australia in the early 1990s from indigenous peoples living in remote areas. Although a statewide policy of screening all hospital patients and staff who have lived outside the state for MRSA has prevented the establishment of multidrug-resistant epidemic MRSA, the policy has not prevented SCCmec type IV and type V MRSA clones from becoming established. Of the 4,099 MRSA isolates analyzed (referred to the Gram-positive Bacteria Typing and Research Unit) from July 2003 to December 2004, 77.5% were community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). Using multilocus sequence/staphylococcal chromosome cassette mec typing, 22 CA-MRSA clones were characterized. Of these isolates, 55.5% were resistant to >1 non–β-lactam antimicrobial drug. Five Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL)–positive CA-MRSA clones were identified. The emergence of multidrug-resistant CA-MRSA clones and the detection of PVL toxin genes in clones previously reported as PVL negative is a major public health concern.
EID | Coombs GW, Pearson JC, O'Brien FG, Murray RJ, Grubb WB, Christiansen KJ. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clones, Western Australia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):241-247. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050454 |
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AMA | Coombs GW, Pearson JC, O'Brien FG, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clones, Western Australia. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):241-247. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050454. |
APA | Coombs, G. W., Pearson, J. C., O'Brien, F. G., Murray, R. J., Grubb, W. B., & Christiansen, K. J. (2006). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clones, Western Australia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 241-247. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050454. |
Ameba-associated Microorganisms and Diagnosis of Nosocomial Pneumonia
To elucidate the role of ameba-associated microorganisms (AAMs) as etiologic agents of pneumonia, we screened for Legionella spp., Parachlamydia acanthamoeba, Afipia sp., Bosea spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Mesorhizobium amorphae, Rasbo bacterium, Azorhizobium caulinodans, Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus, and conventional microorganisms in 210 pneumonia patients in intensive-care units by using culture, polymerase chain reaction, and serologic testing. These resulted in 59 diagnoses in 40 patients. AAMs and non-AAMs were implicated in 10.5% of the patients. The infectious agents were identified in 15 patients: Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus, 8; Legionella pneumophila, 3; L. anisa, 1; Parachlamydia sp., 1; Bosea massiliensis, L. worsleiensis, L. quinlivanii, and L. rubrilucens, 1; and M. amorphae and R. bacterium, 1. A. polyphaga mimivirus was the fourth most common etiologic agent, with a higher seroprevalence than noted in healthy controls. This finding suggested its clinical relevance. Therefore, AAM might cause nosocomial pneumonia and should be suspected when conventional microbiologic results are negative.
EID | Berger P, Papazian L, Drancourt M, La Scola B, Auffray J, Raoult D. Ameba-associated Microorganisms and Diagnosis of Nosocomial Pneumonia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):248-255. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050434 |
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AMA | Berger P, Papazian L, Drancourt M, et al. Ameba-associated Microorganisms and Diagnosis of Nosocomial Pneumonia. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):248-255. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050434. |
APA | Berger, P., Papazian, L., Drancourt, M., La Scola, B., Auffray, J., & Raoult, D. (2006). Ameba-associated Microorganisms and Diagnosis of Nosocomial Pneumonia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 248-255. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050434. |
Rickettsial Infections and Fever, Vientiane, Laos
Rickettsial diseases have not been described previously from Laos, but in a prospective study, acute rickettsial infection was identified as the cause of fever in 115 (27%) of 427 adults with negative blood cultures admitted to Mahosot Hospital in Vientiane, Laos. The organisms identified by serologic analysis were Orientia tsutsugamushi (14.8%), Rickettsia typhi (9.6%), and spotted fever group rickettsia (2.6% [8 R. helvetica, 1 R. felis, 1 R. conorii subsp. indica, and 1 Rickettsia "AT1"]). Patients with murine typhus had a lower frequency of peripheral lymphadenopathy than those with scrub typhus (3% vs. 46%, p<0.001). Rickettsioses are an underrecognized cause of undifferentiated febrile illnesses among adults in Laos. This finding has implications for the local empiric treatment of fever.
EID | Phongmany S, Rolain J, Phetsouvanh R, Blacksell SD, Soukkhaseum V, Rasachack B, et al. Rickettsial Infections and Fever, Vientiane, Laos. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):256-262. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050900 |
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AMA | Phongmany S, Rolain J, Phetsouvanh R, et al. Rickettsial Infections and Fever, Vientiane, Laos. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):256-262. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050900. |
APA | Phongmany, S., Rolain, J., Phetsouvanh, R., Blacksell, S. D., Soukkhaseum, V., Rasachack, B....Newton, P. N. (2006). Rickettsial Infections and Fever, Vientiane, Laos. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 256-262. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050900. |
Helicobacter pullorum in Chickens, Belgium
A total of 110 broilers from 11 flocks were tested for Helicobacter pullorum by polymerase chain reaction; positive samples were reexamined with a conventional isolation method. H. pullorum isolates were examined by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting for interstrain genetic diversity and relatedness. Sixteen isolates from cecal samples from 2 different flocks were obtained. AFLP analysis showed that these isolates and 4 additional isolates from a different flock clustered according to their origin, which indicates that H. pullorum colonization may occur with a single strain that disseminates throughout the flock. Strains isolated from different hosts or geographic sources displayed a distinctive pattern. H. pullorum is present in approximately one third of live chickens in Belgium and may represent a risk to human health.
EID | Ceelen LM, Decostere A, Van den Bulck K, On S, Baele M, Ducatelle R, et al. Helicobacter pullorum in Chickens, Belgium. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):263-267. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050847 |
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AMA | Ceelen LM, Decostere A, Van den Bulck K, et al. Helicobacter pullorum in Chickens, Belgium. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):263-267. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050847. |
APA | Ceelen, L. M., Decostere, A., Van den Bulck, K., On, S., Baele, M., Ducatelle, R....Haesebrouck, F. (2006). Helicobacter pullorum in Chickens, Belgium. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 263-267. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050847. |
Epizootiologic Parameters for Plague in Kazakhstan
Reliable estimates are lacking of key epizootiologic parameters for plague caused by Yersinia pestis infection in its natural reservoirs. We report results of a 3-year longitudinal study of plague dynamics in populations of a maintenance host, the great gerbil (Rhombomys opimus), in 2 populations in Kazakhstan. Serologic results suggest a mid-summer peak in the abundance of infectious hosts and possible transmission from the reservoir to humans. Decrease in antibody titer to an undetectable level showed no seasonal pattern. Our findings did not support the use of the nitroblue-tetrazolium test characterization of plague-infected hosts. Y. pestis infection reduced survival of otherwise asymptomatic hosts.
EID | Begon M, Klassovskiy N, Ageyev V, Suleimenov B, Atshabar B, Bennett M. Epizootiologic Parameters for Plague in Kazakhstan. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):268-273. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050651 |
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AMA | Begon M, Klassovskiy N, Ageyev V, et al. Epizootiologic Parameters for Plague in Kazakhstan. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):268-273. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050651. |
APA | Begon, M., Klassovskiy, N., Ageyev, V., Suleimenov, B., Atshabar, B., & Bennett, M. (2006). Epizootiologic Parameters for Plague in Kazakhstan. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 268-273. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050651. |
Blastomycosis in Ontario, 1994–2003
We describe a case of blastomycosis in an 8-year-old boy with Blastomyces-associated osteomyelitis and possible pulmonary involvement. We also identify 309 cases of blastomycosis in Ontario that were seen during a 10-year period, 57% of which occurred from 2001 to 2003. The overall incidence during the study period was 0.30 cases per 100,000 population. Most patients were from north Ontario (n = 188), where the incidence was 2.44 cases per 100,000. The incidence in the Toronto region was 0.29 per 100,000. Thirteen percent of cases occurred in children <19 years of age. These findings substantially increase the number of known cases in Ontario and Canada. Clinicians may encounter persons infected with Blastomyces dermatitidis and must be familiar with its signs and symptoms and be aware of locations, such as northwestern Ontario, where disease is endemic or hyperendemic. We advocate resuming blastomycosis as a reportable disease in Ontario to facilitate tracking cases.
EID | Morris SK, Brophy J, Richardson SE, Summerbell R, Parkin PC, Jamieson F, et al. Blastomycosis in Ontario, 1994–2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):274-279. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050849 |
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AMA | Morris SK, Brophy J, Richardson SE, et al. Blastomycosis in Ontario, 1994–2003. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):274-279. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050849. |
APA | Morris, S. K., Brophy, J., Richardson, S. E., Summerbell, R., Parkin, P. C., Jamieson, F....Ford-Jones, E. (2006). Blastomycosis in Ontario, 1994–2003. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 274-279. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050849. |
Fresh Chicken as Main Risk Factor for Campylobacteriosis, Denmark
We report the findings of a case-control study of risk factors for sporadic cases of human campylobacteriosis in Denmark. In 3 different analytical models, the main domestic risk factor identified was eating fresh, unfrozen chicken. Specifically, 28 of 74 domestically acquired case-patients were exposed to fresh chicken compared with 21 of 114 controls (multivariate matched odds ratio 5.8; 95% confidence interval 2.1–15.9). In contrast, a risk from eating other poultry, including previously frozen chicken, was only indicated from borderline significant 2-factor interactions. The marked increase in consumption of fresh, unfrozen poultry in Denmark during the 1990s likely contributed substantially to the increasing incidence of human campylobacteriosis in this period.
EID | Wingstrand A, Neimann J, Engberg J, Nielsen E, Gerner-Smidt P, Wegener HC, et al. Fresh Chicken as Main Risk Factor for Campylobacteriosis, Denmark. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):280-284. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050936 |
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AMA | Wingstrand A, Neimann J, Engberg J, et al. Fresh Chicken as Main Risk Factor for Campylobacteriosis, Denmark. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):280-284. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050936. |
APA | Wingstrand, A., Neimann, J., Engberg, J., Nielsen, E., Gerner-Smidt, P., Wegener, H. C....Mølbak, K. (2006). Fresh Chicken as Main Risk Factor for Campylobacteriosis, Denmark. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 280-284. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050936. |
Ophthalmic Complications of Dengue
We report 13 cases of ophthalmic complications resulting from dengue infection in Singapore. We performed a retrospective analysis of a series of 13 patients with dengue fever who had visual impairment. Investigations included Humphrey automated visual field analyzer, Amsler charting, fundus fluorescein angiography, and optical coherence tomography. Twenty-two eyes of 13 patients were affected. The mean age of patients was 31.7 years. Visual acuity varied from 20/25 to counting fingers only. Twelve patients (92.3%) noted central vision impairment. Onset of visual impairment coincided with the nadir of serum thrombocytopenia. Ophthalmologic findings include macular edema and blot hemorrhages (10), cotton wool spots (1), retinal vasculitis (4), exudative retinal detachment (2), and anterior uveitis (1). All patients recovered visual acuity to 20/30 or better with residual central scotoma by 12 weeks. These new complications suggest a widening spectrum of ophthalmic complications in dengue infection.
EID | Chan D, Teoh S, Tan C, Nah G, Rajagopalan R, Prabhakaragupta MK, et al. Ophthalmic Complications of Dengue. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):285-289. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050274 |
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AMA | Chan D, Teoh S, Tan C, et al. Ophthalmic Complications of Dengue. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):285-289. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050274. |
APA | Chan, D., Teoh, S., Tan, C., Nah, G., Rajagopalan, R., Prabhakaragupta, M. K....Goh, K. Y. (2006). Ophthalmic Complications of Dengue. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 285-289. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050274. |
Scrub Typhus, Republic of Palau
Scrub typhus, caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, is a severe febrile illness transmitted to humans by trombiculid mites, which normally feed on rodents. The first known outbreak of scrub typhus in Palau occurred in 2001 to 2003 among residents of the remote southwest islands. To determine the extent of scrub typhus distribution in Palau, we tested serum samples from humans and rodents for antibodies to O. tsutsugamushi. Of 212 Palau residents surveyed in 2003, 101 (47.6%) had immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody titers >1:64, and 56 (26.4%) had concurrent IgG and IgM antibody titers >1:512 and 1:64, respectively. Of 635 banked serum samples collected from Palau residents in 1995, 34 (5.4%) had IgG antibody titers >1:64. Sera collected from rodents (Rattus norvegicus and R. rattus) in 2003 and 2005 were tested, and 18 (28.6%) of 63 had IgG antibody titers >1:64. These findings suggest that scrub typhus is endemic in Palau.
EID | Demma LJ, McQuiston JH, Nicholson WL, Murphy SM, Marumoto P, Sengebau-Kingzio J, et al. Scrub Typhus, Republic of Palau. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):290-295. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050967 |
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AMA | Demma LJ, McQuiston JH, Nicholson WL, et al. Scrub Typhus, Republic of Palau. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):290-295. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050967. |
APA | Demma, L. J., McQuiston, J. H., Nicholson, W. L., Murphy, S. M., Marumoto, P., Sengebau-Kingzio, J....Swerdlow, D. L. (2006). Scrub Typhus, Republic of Palau. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 290-295. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050967. |
Global Socioeconomic Impact of Cystic Echinococcosis
Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is an emerging zoonotic parasitic disease throughout the world. Human incidence and livestock prevalence data of CE were gathered from published literature and the Office International des Epizooties databases. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and monetary losses, resulting from human and livestock CE, were calculated from recorded human and livestock cases. Alternative values, assuming substantial underreporting, are also reported. When no underreporting is assumed, the estimated human burden of disease is 285,407 (95% confidence interval [CI], 218,515–366,133) DALYs or an annual loss of US $193,529,740 (95% CI, $171,567,331–$217,773,513). When underreporting is accounted for, this amount rises to 1,009,662 (95% CI, 862,119–1,175,654) DALYs or US $763,980,979 (95% CI, $676,048,731–$857,982,275). An annual livestock production loss of at least US $141,605,195 (95% CI, $101,011,553–$183,422,465) and possibly up to US $2,190,132,464 (95% CI, $1,572,373,055–$2,951,409,989) is also estimated. This initial valuation demonstrates the necessity for increased monitoring and global control of CE.
EID | Budke CM, Deplazes P, Torgerson PR. Global Socioeconomic Impact of Cystic Echinococcosis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):296-303. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050499 |
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AMA | Budke CM, Deplazes P, Torgerson PR. Global Socioeconomic Impact of Cystic Echinococcosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):296-303. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050499. |
APA | Budke, C. M., Deplazes, P., & Torgerson, P. R. (2006). Global Socioeconomic Impact of Cystic Echinococcosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 296-303. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050499. |
Dispatches
Rotavirus and Severe Childhood Diarrhea
Studies published between 1986 and 1999 indicated that rotavirus causes ≈22% (range 17%–28%) of childhood diarrhea hospitalizations. From 2000 to 2004, this proportion increased to 39% (range 29%–45%). Application of this proportion to the recent World Health Organization estimates of diarrhea-related childhood deaths gave an estimated 611,000 (range 454,000–705,000) rotavirus-related deaths.
EID | Parashar UD, Gibson CJ, Bresee JS, Glass RI. Rotavirus and Severe Childhood Diarrhea. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):304-306. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050006 |
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AMA | Parashar UD, Gibson CJ, Bresee JS, et al. Rotavirus and Severe Childhood Diarrhea. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):304-306. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050006. |
APA | Parashar, U. D., Gibson, C. J., Bresee, J. S., & Glass, R. I. (2006). Rotavirus and Severe Childhood Diarrhea. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 304-306. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050006. |
Arcobacter butzleri: Underestimated Enteropathogen
Molecular methods applied to 2,855 strains of Campylobacter-like organisms received from a surveillance network of Campylobacter infections in France identified 29 Arcobacter butzleri infections. This species ranks fourth for Campylobacteraceae isolation and appears to have the same pathogenic potential as the other species in the genus.
EID | Prouzet-Mauléon V, Labadi L, Bouges N, Ménard A, Mégraud F. Arcobacter butzleri: Underestimated Enteropathogen. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):307-309. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050570 |
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AMA | Prouzet-Mauléon V, Labadi L, Bouges N, et al. Arcobacter butzleri: Underestimated Enteropathogen. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):307-309. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050570. |
APA | Prouzet-Mauléon, V., Labadi, L., Bouges, N., Ménard, A., & Mégraud, F. (2006). Arcobacter butzleri: Underestimated Enteropathogen. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 307-309. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050570. |
Evaluation of a Direct, Rapid Immunohistochemical Test for Rabies Diagnosis
A direct rapid immunohistochemical test (dRIT) was evaluated under field and laboratory conditions to detect rabies virus antigen in frozen and glycerol-preserved field brain samples from northwestern Tanzania. Compared to the direct fluorescent antibody test, the traditional standard in rabies diagnosis, the dRIT was 100% sensitive and specific.
EID | Lembo T, Niezgoda M, Velasco-Villa A, Cleaveland S, Ernest E, Rupprecht CE. Evaluation of a Direct, Rapid Immunohistochemical Test for Rabies Diagnosis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):310-313. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050812 |
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AMA | Lembo T, Niezgoda M, Velasco-Villa A, et al. Evaluation of a Direct, Rapid Immunohistochemical Test for Rabies Diagnosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):310-313. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050812. |
APA | Lembo, T., Niezgoda, M., Velasco-Villa, A., Cleaveland, S., Ernest, E., & Rupprecht, C. E. (2006). Evaluation of a Direct, Rapid Immunohistochemical Test for Rabies Diagnosis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 310-313. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050812. |
Introductions of West Nile Virus Strains to Mexico
Complete genome sequencing of 22 West Nile virus isolates suggested 2 independent introductions into Mexico. A previously identified mouse-attenuated glycosylation variant was introduced into southern Mexico through the southeastern United States, while a common US genotype appears to have been introduced incrementally into northern Mexico through the southwestern United States.
EID | Deardorff E, Estrada-Franco JG, Brault AC, Navarro-Lopez R, Campomanes-Cortes A, Paz-Ramirez P, et al. Introductions of West Nile Virus Strains to Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):314-318. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050871 |
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AMA | Deardorff E, Estrada-Franco JG, Brault AC, et al. Introductions of West Nile Virus Strains to Mexico. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):314-318. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050871. |
APA | Deardorff, E., Estrada-Franco, J. G., Brault, A. C., Navarro-Lopez, R., Campomanes-Cortes, A., Paz-Ramirez, P....Weaver, S. C. (2006). Introductions of West Nile Virus Strains to Mexico. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 314-318. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050871. |
Surveillance for Prion Disease in Cervids, Germany
An active survey on transmissible spongiform encephalopathies was performed from 2002 to 2005 on 4,255 roe deer, 1,445 red deer, and 1,604 fallow deer in Germany. All cervids tested negative. This survey has been the largest in European wildlife and provides no evidence of prion diseases in free-living German cervids.
EID | Schettler E, Steinbach F, Eschenbacher-Kaps I, Gerst K, Meussdoerffer F, Risch K, et al. Surveillance for Prion Disease in Cervids, Germany. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):319-322. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050970 |
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AMA | Schettler E, Steinbach F, Eschenbacher-Kaps I, et al. Surveillance for Prion Disease in Cervids, Germany. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):319-322. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050970. |
APA | Schettler, E., Steinbach, F., Eschenbacher-Kaps, I., Gerst, K., Meussdoerffer, F., Risch, K....Frölich, K. (2006). Surveillance for Prion Disease in Cervids, Germany. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 319-322. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050970. |
Verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli, Japan, 1999–2004
In 1999, an infectious disease prevention law was enacted in Japan that affected the nationwide infectious surveillance system. A total of 19,304 laboratory-confirmed verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli cases were reported through 2004. The annual incidence was 2.74/100,000 population; its fluctuation over time and space was associated with climate, socioeconomic, and population factors.
EID | Sakuma M, Urashima M, Okabe N. Verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli, Japan, 1999–2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):323-325. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050268 |
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AMA | Sakuma M, Urashima M, Okabe N. Verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli, Japan, 1999–2004. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):323-325. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050268. |
APA | Sakuma, M., Urashima, M., & Okabe, N. (2006). Verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli, Japan, 1999–2004. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 323-325. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050268. |
Waterborne Toxoplasmosis, Brazil, from Field to Gene
Water was the suspected vehicle of Toxoplasma gondii dissemination in a toxoplasmosis outbreak in Brazil. A case-control study and geographic mapping of cases were performed. T. gondii was isolated directly from the implicated water and genotyped as SAG 2 type I.
EID | de Moura L, Bahia-Oliveira L, Wada MY, Jones JL, Tuboi SH, Carmo EH, et al. Waterborne Toxoplasmosis, Brazil, from Field to Gene. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):326-329. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.041115 |
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AMA | de Moura L, Bahia-Oliveira L, Wada MY, et al. Waterborne Toxoplasmosis, Brazil, from Field to Gene. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):326-329. doi:10.3201/eid1202.041115. |
APA | de Moura, L., Bahia-Oliveira, L., Wada, M. Y., Jones, J. L., Tuboi, S. H., Carmo, E. H....Garrett, D. O. (2006). Waterborne Toxoplasmosis, Brazil, from Field to Gene. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 326-329. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.041115. |
Chlamydophila psittaci in Fulmars, the Faroe Islands
Chlamydophila psittaci was detected in 10% of 431 fulmars examined from the Faroe Islands. Analysis of ompA showed a sequence almost identical to that of the type strain. The origin of C. psittaci outbreaks in fulmars is discussed. Despite a high level of exposure, the risk for transmission of C. psittaci to humans is low.
EID | Herrmann B, Persson H, Jensen J, Joensen H, Klint M, Olsen B. Chlamydophila psittaci in Fulmars, the Faroe Islands. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):330-332. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050404 |
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AMA | Herrmann B, Persson H, Jensen J, et al. Chlamydophila psittaci in Fulmars, the Faroe Islands. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):330-332. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050404. |
APA | Herrmann, B., Persson, H., Jensen, J., Joensen, H., Klint, M., & Olsen, B. (2006). Chlamydophila psittaci in Fulmars, the Faroe Islands. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 330-332. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050404. |
Sequencing and Staphylococci Identification
The emerging clinical importance of staphylococcal infections prompted us to establish a reference database for partial RNA polymerase B (rpoB; nucleotides 1444–1928) gene sequences from type strains of all staphylococcal species and subspecies. This database correctly identified 55 clinical staphylococcal isolates; all were correctly identified at the species level. At the subspecies level, rpoB misidentified only 2 isolates.
EID | Mellmann A, Becker K, von Eiff C, Keckevoet U, Schumann P, Harmsen D. Sequencing and Staphylococci Identification. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):333-336. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050962 |
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AMA | Mellmann A, Becker K, von Eiff C, et al. Sequencing and Staphylococci Identification. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):333-336. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050962. |
APA | Mellmann, A., Becker, K., von Eiff, C., Keckevoet, U., Schumann, P., & Harmsen, D. (2006). Sequencing and Staphylococci Identification. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 333-336. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050962. |
Salmonella-associated Deaths, Sweden, 1997–2003
We examined excess deaths after infection with Salmonella in a registry-based matched cohort study of 25,060 persons infected abroad and 5,139 infected within Sweden. The domestically infected have an increased standardized mortality ratio, whereas those who acquired Salmonella infection abroad had no excess risk of death.
EID | Ternhag A, Törner A, Ekdahl K, Giesecke J. Salmonella-associated Deaths, Sweden, 1997–2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):337-339. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050867 |
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AMA | Ternhag A, Törner A, Ekdahl K, et al. Salmonella-associated Deaths, Sweden, 1997–2003. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):337-339. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050867. |
APA | Ternhag, A., Törner, A., Ekdahl, K., & Giesecke, J. (2006). Salmonella-associated Deaths, Sweden, 1997–2003. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 337-339. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050867. |
Diagnosing Capnocytophaga canimorsus Infections
We reviewed clinical and epidemiologic features of 56 human Capnocytophaga canimorsus isolates submitted during a 32-year period to California's Microbial Diseases Laboratory for identification. An increasing number of isolates identified as C. canimorsus have been submitted since 1990. Many laboratories still have difficulty correctly identifying this species.
EID | Janda J, Graves MH, Lindquist D, Probert WS. Diagnosing Capnocytophaga canimorsus Infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):340-342. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050783 |
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AMA | Janda J, Graves MH, Lindquist D, et al. Diagnosing Capnocytophaga canimorsus Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):340-342. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050783. |
APA | Janda, J., Graves, M. H., Lindquist, D., & Probert, W. S. (2006). Diagnosing Capnocytophaga canimorsus Infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 340-342. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050783. |
Novel Dengue Virus Type 1 from Travelers to Yap State, Micronesia
Dengue virus type 1 (DENV-1), which was responsible for the dengue fever outbreak in Yap State, Micronesia, in 2004, was isolated from serum samples of 4 dengue patients in Japan. Genome sequencing demonstrated that this virus belonged to genotype IV and had a 29-nucleotide deletion in the 3´ noncoding region.
EID | Nukui Y, Tajima S, Kotaki A, Ito M, Takasaki T, Koike K, et al. Novel Dengue Virus Type 1 from Travelers to Yap State, Micronesia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):343-346. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050733 |
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AMA | Nukui Y, Tajima S, Kotaki A, et al. Novel Dengue Virus Type 1 from Travelers to Yap State, Micronesia. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):343-346. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050733. |
APA | Nukui, Y., Tajima, S., Kotaki, A., Ito, M., Takasaki, T., Koike, K....Kurane, I. (2006). Novel Dengue Virus Type 1 from Travelers to Yap State, Micronesia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 343-346. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050733. |
Human Metapneumovirus, Peru
We retrospectively studied 420 pharyngeal swab specimens collected from Peruvian and Argentinean patients with influenzalike illness in 2002 and 2003 for evidence of human metapneumovirus (HMPV). Twelve specimens (2.3%) were positive by multiple assays. Six specimens yielded HMPV isolates. Four of the 6 isolates were of the uncommon B1 genotype.
EID | Gray GC, Capuano AW, Setterquist SF, Sanchez JL, Neville JS, Olson J, et al. Human Metapneumovirus, Peru. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):347-350. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051133 |
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AMA | Gray GC, Capuano AW, Setterquist SF, et al. Human Metapneumovirus, Peru. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):347-350. doi:10.3201/eid1202.051133. |
APA | Gray, G. C., Capuano, A. W., Setterquist, S. F., Sanchez, J. L., Neville, J. S., Olson, J....Boivin, G. (2006). Human Metapneumovirus, Peru. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 347-350. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051133. |
Letters
Fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella sp. in Carcasses
EID | Wang Y, Yeh K, Chang C, Hsuan S, Chen T. Fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella sp. in Carcasses. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):351-352. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050629 |
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AMA | Wang Y, Yeh K, Chang C, et al. Fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella sp. in Carcasses. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):351-352. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050629. |
APA | Wang, Y., Yeh, K., Chang, C., Hsuan, S., & Chen, T. (2006). Fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella sp. in Carcasses. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 351-352. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050629. |
Cocirculation of Dengue Serotypes, Delhi, India, 2003
EID | Dar L, Gupta E, Narang P, Broor S. Cocirculation of Dengue Serotypes, Delhi, India, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):352-353. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050767 |
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AMA | Dar L, Gupta E, Narang P, et al. Cocirculation of Dengue Serotypes, Delhi, India, 2003. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):352-353. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050767. |
APA | Dar, L., Gupta, E., Narang, P., & Broor, S. (2006). Cocirculation of Dengue Serotypes, Delhi, India, 2003. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 352-353. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050767. |
Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum Coinfection
EID | Loebermann M, Fingerle V, Lademann M, Fritzsche C, Reisinger EC. Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum Coinfection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):353-355. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050765 |
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AMA | Loebermann M, Fingerle V, Lademann M, et al. Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum Coinfection. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):353-355. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050765. |
APA | Loebermann, M., Fingerle, V., Lademann, M., Fritzsche, C., & Reisinger, E. C. (2006). Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum Coinfection. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 353-355. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050765. |
Corynebacterium pseudogenitalium Urinary Tract Infection
EID | Vedel G, Toussaint G, Riegel P, Fouilladieu J, Billöet A, Poyart C. Corynebacterium pseudogenitalium Urinary Tract Infection. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):355-356. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050950 |
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AMA | Vedel G, Toussaint G, Riegel P, et al. Corynebacterium pseudogenitalium Urinary Tract Infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):355-356. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050950. |
APA | Vedel, G., Toussaint, G., Riegel, P., Fouilladieu, J., Billöet, A., & Poyart, C. (2006). Corynebacterium pseudogenitalium Urinary Tract Infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 355-356. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050950. |
Puumala Virus RNA in Patient with Multiorgan Failure
EID | Hoier S, Aberle SW, Langner C, Schnedl W, Högenauer C, Reisinger EC, et al. Puumala Virus RNA in Patient with Multiorgan Failure. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):356-357. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050634 |
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AMA | Hoier S, Aberle SW, Langner C, et al. Puumala Virus RNA in Patient with Multiorgan Failure. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):356-357. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050634. |
APA | Hoier, S., Aberle, S. W., Langner, C., Schnedl, W., Högenauer, C., Reisinger, E. C....Krause, R. (2006). Puumala Virus RNA in Patient with Multiorgan Failure. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 356-357. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050634. |
Reptile-associated Salmonellosis in Man, Italy
EID | Corrente M, Totaro M, Martella V, Campolo M, Lorusso A, Ricci M, et al. Reptile-associated Salmonellosis in Man, Italy. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):358-359. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050692 |
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AMA | Corrente M, Totaro M, Martella V, et al. Reptile-associated Salmonellosis in Man, Italy. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):358-359. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050692. |
APA | Corrente, M., Totaro, M., Martella, V., Campolo, M., Lorusso, A., Ricci, M....Buonavoglia, C. (2006). Reptile-associated Salmonellosis in Man, Italy. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 358-359. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050692. |
Congenital Visceral Leishmaniasis
EID | Boehme CC, Hain U, Novosel A, Eichenlaub S, Fleischmann E, Löscher T. Congenital Visceral Leishmaniasis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):359-360. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050449 |
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AMA | Boehme CC, Hain U, Novosel A, et al. Congenital Visceral Leishmaniasis. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):359-360. doi:10.3201/eid1202.050449. |
APA | Boehme, C. C., Hain, U., Novosel, A., Eichenlaub, S., Fleischmann, E., & Löscher, T. (2006). Congenital Visceral Leishmaniasis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 359-360. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.050449. |
Books and Media
Dictionary of Parasitology
EID | Eberhard M. Dictionary of Parasitology. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):361. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051244 |
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AMA | Eberhard M. Dictionary of Parasitology. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):361. doi:10.3201/eid1202.051244. |
APA | Eberhard, M. (2006). Dictionary of Parasitology. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 361. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051244. |
Interdisciplinary Public Health Reasoning and Epidemic Modelling: The Case of Black Death
EID | Meltzer MI. Interdisciplinary Public Health Reasoning and Epidemic Modelling: The Case of Black Death. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):361. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051330 |
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AMA | Meltzer MI. Interdisciplinary Public Health Reasoning and Epidemic Modelling: The Case of Black Death. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):361. doi:10.3201/eid1202.051330. |
APA | Meltzer, M. I. (2006). Interdisciplinary Public Health Reasoning and Epidemic Modelling: The Case of Black Death. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 361. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051330. |
Structural Biology of Bacterial Pathogenesis
EID | Stevens D. Structural Biology of Bacterial Pathogenesis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):362. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051390 |
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AMA | Stevens D. Structural Biology of Bacterial Pathogenesis. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):362. doi:10.3201/eid1202.051390. |
APA | Stevens, D. (2006). Structural Biology of Bacterial Pathogenesis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 362. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.051390. |
Etymologia
Etymologia: Orientia tsutsugamushi
EID | Etymologia: Orientia tsutsugamushi. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):179. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.et1202 |
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AMA | Etymologia: Orientia tsutsugamushi. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):179. doi:10.3201/eid1202.et1202. |
APA | (2006). Etymologia: Orientia tsutsugamushi. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 179. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.et1202. |
About the Cover
Host-Pathogen-Venue Combinations and All That Jazz
EID | Potter P. Host-Pathogen-Venue Combinations and All That Jazz. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):363-364. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.ac1202 |
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AMA | Potter P. Host-Pathogen-Venue Combinations and All That Jazz. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2006;12(2):363-364. doi:10.3201/eid1202.ac1202. |
APA | Potter, P. (2006). Host-Pathogen-Venue Combinations and All That Jazz. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 363-364. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1202.ac1202. |